Akademik Köşem: Mart 2016

Chapter 12: Chapter Outline

The following annotated chapter outline will help you review the major topics covered in this chapter.

Instructions: Review the outline to recall events and their relationships as presented in the chapter. Return to skim any sections that seem unfamiliar.

I. Opening Vignette

A. In 2005, China celebrated the 600th anniversary of the initial launching of the country’s great maritime expeditions in 1405.

1. Admiral Zheng He had commanded a fleet of over 300 ships carrying 27,000 people that sailed as far as the East African coast

2. Why is Columbus so much more remembered?

B. The fifteenth century was a major turning point in world history.

1. Zheng He’s voyages did not have world-historical consequences

2. Columbus’s voyages did

C. This chapter’s purpose is to review the human story up to the sixteenth century and to establish a baseline against which to measure the transformations of the period 1500–2000.

II. The Shapes of Human Communities

A. In 1500, the world still had all types of societies, from bands of gatherers and hunters to empires, but the balance between them was different than it had been in 500.

B. Paleolithic Persistence

1. gathering and hunting societies (Paleolithic peoples) still existed throughout all of Australia , much of Siberia, the arctic coastlands, and parts of Africa and the Americas

2. they had changed over time, interacted with their neighbors

3. example of Australian gatherers and hunters

a. some 250 separate groups

b. had assimilated outside technologies and ideas, e.g., outrigger canoes, fish hooks, netting techniques, artistic styles, rituals, mythological concepts

c. had not adopted agriculture

d. manipulated their environment through “firestick farming”

e. exchanged goods over hundreds of miles

f. developed sophisticated sculpture and rock painting

4. northwest coast of North America developed very differently

a. abundant environment allowed development of a complex gathering and hunting culture

b. had permanent villages, economic specialization, hierarchies, chiefdoms, food storage

5. elsewhere, farming had advanced and absorbed Paleolithic lands

C. Agricultural Village Societies

1. predominated in much of North America, in Africa south of the equator, in parts of the Amazon River basin and Southeast Asia

2. their societies mostly avoided oppressive authority, class inequalities, and seclusion of women typical of other civilizations

3. example of forested region in present-day southern Nigeria , where three different political patterns developed

a. Yoruba people created city-states, each ruled by a king (oba), many of whom were women and who performed both religious and political functions

b. kingdom of Benin: centralized territorial state ruled by a warrior king named Ewuare

c. Igbo peoples: dense population and trade, but purposely rejected kingship and state building

d. Yoruba, Benin , and Igbo peoples traded among themselves and beyond

e. the region shared common artistic traditions

f. all shifted from matrilineal to patrilineal system

4. in what is now central New York State, agricultural village societies underwent substantial change in the centuries before 1500

a. Iroquois speakers had become fully agricultural (maize and beans) by around 1300

b. population growth, emergence of distinct peoples

c. rise of warfare as key to male prestige (perhaps since women did the farming, so males were no longer needed for getting food)

d. warfare triggered the creation of the Iroquois League of Five Nations, based on agreement known as the Great Law of Peace

e. some European colonists appreciated Iroquois values of social equality and personal freedom (even for women)

D. Herding Peoples

1. Turkic warrior Timur (Tamerlane) tried to restore the Mongol Empire ca. 1400

a. his army devastated Russia , Persia , and India

b. Timur died in 1405, while preparing invasion of China

c. his successors kept control of the area between Persia and Afghanistan for a century

d. Timur’s conquest was the last great military success of Central Asian nomads

2. in the following centuries, the steppe nomads’ homeland was swallowed up in expanding Russian and Chinese empires

3. African pastoralists remained independent from established empires for several centuries longer (until late nineteenth century)

4. example of the Fulbe ( West Africa’s largest pastoral society)

a. gradual eastward migration after 1000 c.e.

b. usually lived in small communities among agriculturalists

c. gradually adopted Islam

d. some moved to towns and became noted religious leaders

e. series of jihads in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries created new states ruled by the Fulbe

III. Civilizations of the Fifteenth Century: Comparing China and Europe

A. By the fifteenth century c.e., a majority of the world’s population lived within a major civilization.

B. Ming Dynasty China

1. China had been badly disrupted by Mongol rule and the plague

2. recovery under the Ming dynasty (1368–1644)

a. effort to eliminate all signs of foreign rule

b. promotion of Confucian learning

c. Emperor Yongle (r. 1402–1422) sponsored an 11,000-volume Encyclopedia summarizing all the wisdom of the past

3. reestablished the civil service examination system

4. created a highly centralized government

a. great power was given to court eunuchs

b. state restored land to cultivation, constructed waterworks, planted perhaps a billion trees

c. was perhaps the best-governed and most prosperous civilization of the fifteenth century

5. maritime ventures

a. Chinese sailors and traders had become important in the South China Sea and in Southeast Asian ports in the eleventh century

b. Emperor Yongle commissioned a massive fleet; launched in 1405 under command of Zheng He

c. fleet sought to enroll distant peoples and states in Chinese tribute system but did not seek to conquer new territories or establish settlements

d. Chinese government abruptly stopped the voyages in 1433

e. Chinese merchants and craftsmen continued to settle and trade in Japan , Philippines , Taiwan , and Southeast Asia, but without government support

C. European Comparisons: State Building and Cultural Renewal

1. a similar process of demographic recovery, consolidation, cultural flowering, and European expansion took place in Western Europe

2. European population began to rise again ca. 1450

3. state building, but fragmented, with many independent and competitive states

4. the Renaissance: reclamation of classical Greek traditions

a. began in the commercial cities of Italy ca. 1350–1500

b. “returning to the sources” as a cultural standard to imitate

c. turn to greater naturalism in art (e.g., Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo)

d. “humanist” scholars explored secular topics in addition to religious matters (e.g., Niccolò Machiavelli’s The Prince)

D. European Comparisons: Maritime Voyaging

1. Portuguese voyages of discovery began in 1415

2. 1492: Columbus reached the Americas

3. 1497–1498: Vasco da Gama sailed around Africa to India

4. European voyages were very small compared to Chinese ones

5. unlike the Chinese voyages, Europeans were seeking wealth, converts, allies in Crusades against Islam

6. Europeans used violence to carve out empires

7. Chinese voyages ended; European ones kept escalating

a. no overarching political authority in Europe to end the voyages

b. rivalry between states encouraged more exploration

c. much of European elite interested in overseas expansion

d. China had everything it needed; Europeans wanted the greater riches of the East

e. China ’s food production could expand internally; European system expanded by acquiring new lands

IV. Civilizations of the Fifteenth Century: The Islamic World

A. The long-fragmented Islamic world crystallized into four major states or empires.

B. In the Islamic Heartland: The Ottoman and Safavid Empires

1. Ottoman Empire lasted from fourteenth to early twentieth century

a. huge territory: Anatolia, eastern Europe, much of Middle East, North African coast, lands around Black Sea

b. sultans claimed the title “caliph” and the legacy of the Abbasids

c. effort to bring new unity to the Islamic world

2. Ottoman aggression toward Christian lands

a. fall of Constantinople in 1453

b. 1529 siege of Vienna

c. Europeans feared Turkish expansion

3. Safavid Empire emerged in Persia from a Sufi religious order

a. empire was established shortly after 1500

b. imposed Shia Islam as the official religion of the state

4. Sunni Ottoman Empire and Shia Safavid Empire fought periodically between 1534 and 1639

C. On the Frontiers of Islam: The Songhay and Mughal Empires

1. Songhay Empire rose in West Africa in the second half of the fifteenth century

a. Islam was limited largely to urban elites

b. Sonni Ali (r. 1465–1492) followed Muslim practices, but was also regarded as a magician with an invisibility charm

c. Songhay Empire was a major center of Islamic learning/trade

2. Mughal Empire in India was created by Turkic group that invaded India in 1526

a. over the sixteenth century, Mughals gained control of most of India

b. effort to create a partnership between Hindus and Muslims

c. Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagara continued to flourish in the south

D. The age of these four great Muslim empires is sometimes called a “second flowering of Islam.”

1. new age of energy, prosperity, and cultural brilliance

2. spread of Islam to new areas, such as Southeast Asia

3. rise of Malacca as a sign of the times—became a major Muslim port city in the fifteenth century

a. Malaccan Islam blended with Hindu/Buddhist traditions

b. was a center for Islamic learning

V. Civilizations of the Fifteenth Century: The Americas

A. Both the Aztec and the Inca empires were established by once-marginal peoples who took over and absorbed older cultures, and both were destroyed by Spanish conquistadores and their diseases.

B. The Aztec Empire

1. The Mexica were a seminomadic people who migrated southward from northern Mexico

a. established themselves on an island in Lake Texcoco by 1325

b. built themselves up and established capital city of Tenochtitlán

2. Triple Alliance (1428): Mexica and two other city-states united

a. launched a program of military conquest

b. conquered much of Mesoamerica in under a century

c. Aztec rulers claimed descent from earlier peoples

3. Aztec Empire was a loosely structured, unstable conquest state

a. population of 5–6 million

b. conquered peoples paid regular tribute

c. Tenochtitlán had 150,000–200,000 people

d. local and long-distance trade on a vast scale

4. trade included slaves, many intended for sacrifice

a. human sacrifice much more prominent in Aztec Empire than in earlier Mesoamerica

b. Tlacaelel is credited with crystallizing ideology of state giving human sacrifice such importance

5. created an important philosophical/poetic tradition focused on the fragility of human life

C. The Inca Empire

1. Quechua speakers established the Inca Empire along the length of the Andes

a. empire was 2,500 miles long

b. around 10 million subjects

2. Inca Empire was more bureaucratic, centralized than the Aztecs

a. emperor was an absolute ruler regarded as divine

b. state theoretically owned all land and resources

c. around 80 provinces, each with an Inca governor

d. subjects grouped into hierarchical units of people (10, 50, 100, 500, etc.), at least in the central regions

e. inspectors checked up on provincial officials

f. population data was recorded on quipus (knotted cords)

g. massive resettlement program moved much of the population

3. Incas attempted cultural integration

a. leaders of conquered peoples had to learn Quechua

b. sons were taken to Cuzco (the capital) for acculturation

c. subjects had to acknowledge major Inca deities, but then could carry on their own religious traditions

4. almost everyone had to perform labor service (mita) for the Inca state

a. work on state farms, herding, mining, military service, state construction

b. also production of goods for the state

c. state provided elaborate feasts in return

5. the state played a large role in distribution of goods

D. Both the Inca and Aztec civilizations practiced “gender parallelism.”

1. women and men operated in “separate but equivalent spheres”

2. parallel religious cults for women and men

3. parallel hierarchies of female and male political officials (especially among Incas)

4. women’s household tasks were not regarded as inferior

5. still, men had top positions in political and religious life

6. glorification of the military probably undermined gender parallelism

7. Inca ruler and his wife governed jointly, were descended from sun and moon, respectively

VI. Webs of Connection

A. Large-scale political systems brought together culturally different people.

B. Religion both united and divided far-flung peoples.

1. common religious culture of Christendom, but divided into Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy

2. Buddhism linked people in China , Korea , Tibet , Japan , and parts of Southeast Asia

3. Islam was particularly good at bringing together its people

a. the annual hajj

b. yet conflict within the umma persisted

C. Patterns of trade were very evident in the fifteenth century

1. trade was going on almost everywhere

2. the balance of Afro-Eurasian trade was changing

a. the Silk Road network was contracting

b. ocean trade in the west Atlantic/Indian Ocean picked up

VII. A Preview of Coming Attractions: Looking Ahead to the Modern Era (1500–2010)

A. No fifteenth-century connections were truly global.

1. those came only with European expansion in the sixteenth century

2. 1500–2010: inextricable linking of the worlds of Afro-Eurasia, the Americas , and Pacific Oceania

B. “Modern” human society emerged first in Europe in the nineteenth century and then throughout the world.

1. core feature: industrialization

2. accompanied by massive population increase

3. societies favored holders of urban wealth over rural landowning elites

4. states became more powerful and intrusive

5. opening up of public and political life to more of the population

6. self-conscious departure from tradition

7. the modernity revolution was as important as the Agricultural Revolution

a. introduced new divisions and conflicts, new economic inequalities

b. destruction of older patterns of human life

C. The prominence of European peoples on the global stage grew over the last 500 years.

1. after 1500, Western Europe became the most innovative, prosperous, powerful, imitated part of the world

2. spread of European languages and Christian religion throughout the world

3. initiated the Scientific Revolution and the Industrial Revolution

4. origin of modern -isms: liberalism, nationalism, feminism, socialism

5. rest of the world was confronted by powerful, intrusive Europeans

VIII. Reflections: What If? Chance and Contingency in World History

A. Might history have been shaped, at least at certain points, by coincidence, chance, or the decisions of a few?

1. What if Ogodei Khan hadn’t died in 1241 and the Mongols had continued their advance into Europe?

2. What if China had continued maritime exploration after 1433?

3. What if the Ottomans had taken Vienna in 1529?

B. It’s worthwhile to sometimes take a “what if” approach to history.

Chapter 13: Chapter Outline

The following annotated chapter outline will help you review the major topics covered in this chapter.

Instructions: Review the outline to recall events and their relationships as presented in the chapter. Return to skim any sections that seem unfamiliar.

I.	Opening Vignette
A.	Around the end of the twentieth century, reactions to the empire building of the early modern period remain varied.
		1.	Uighur attempts to win independence from China
		2.	Native American protests against 500th anniversary of Columbus’s arrival in America
B.	Early modern European colonies were massively significant.
		1.	Russians also constructed a major empire
		2.	Qing dynasty China doubled in size
		3.	Mughal Empire of India pulled together Hindus and Muslims
		4.	Ottoman Empire reestablished some of the older political unity of the Islamic heartland
C.	The empires of the early modern era show a new stage in globalization.

II.	European Empires in the Americas
A.	Western European empires were marked by maritime expansion.
		1.	Spaniards in Caribbean, then on to Aztec and Inca empires
		2.	Portuguese in Brazil
		3.	British, French, and Dutch colonies in North America
		4.	Europeans controlled most of the Americas by the mid-nineteenth century
B.	The European Advantage
		1.	geography: European Atlantic states were well positioned for involvement in the Americas
		2.	need: Chinese and Indians had such rich markets in the Indian Ocean that there wasn’t much incentive to go beyond
		3.	marginality: Europeans were aware of their marginal position in Eurasian commerce and wanted to change it
		4.	rivalry: interstate rivalry drove rulers to compete
		5.	merchants: growing merchant class wanted direct access to Asian wealth
		6.	wealth and status: colonies were an opportunity for impoverished nobles and commoners
		7.	religion:
				a.	crusading zeal
				b.	persecuted minorities looking for more freedom
		8.	European states and trading companies mobilized resources well
				a.	seafaring technology
				b.	iron, gunpowder weapons, and horses gave Europeans an initial advantage over people in the Americas
		9.	Rivalries within the Americas provided allies for European invaders
C.	The Great Dying—the demographic collapse of Native American societies
		1.	pre-Columbian Western Hemisphere had a population of perhaps 60 million–80 million
		2.	no immunity to Old World diseases
		3.	Europeans brought European and African diseases
				a.	mortality rate of up to 90 percent among Native American populations
				b.	native population nearly vanished in the Caribbean
				c.	Central Mexico : population dropped from 10 million–20 million to around 1 million by 1650
				d.	similar mortality in North America
D.	The Columbian Exchange
		1.	massive native mortality created a labor shortage in the Americas
		2.	migrant Europeans and African slaves created entirely new societies
		3.	American food crops (e.g., corn, potatoes, and cassava) spread widely in the Eastern Hemisphere
				a.	potatoes especially allowed enormous population growth
				b.	corn and sweet potatoes were important in China and Africa
		4.	exchange with the Americas reshaped the world economy
				a.	importation of millions of African slaves to the Americas
				b.	new and lasting link among Africa, Europe, and the Americas
		5.	network of communication, migration, trade, transfer of plants and animals (including microbes) is called “the Columbian exchange”
				a.	the Atlantic world connected four continents
				b.	Western Europeans got most of the rewards

III.	Comparing Colonial Societies in the Americas
A.	Europeans did not just conquer and govern established societies: they created wholly new societies.
		1.	all were shaped by mercantilism—theory that governments should encourage exports and accumulate bullion to serve their countries
		2.	colonies should provide closed markets for the mother country’s manufactured goods
		3.	but colonies differed widely, depending on native cultures and the sorts of economy that were established
		4.	mercantilist thinking thus fueled the European wars and colonial rivalries around the world in the early modern era
B.	In the Lands of the Aztecs and the Incas
		1.	Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires (early sixteenth century)
				a.	the most wealthy, urbanized, and populous regions of the Western Hemisphere
				b.	within a century, the Spaniards established major cities, universities, and a religious and bureaucratic infrastructure
		2.	economic basis of the colonial society was commercial agriculture and mining (gold and silver)
		3.	rise of a distinctive social order
				a.	replicated some of the Spanish class hierarchy
				b.	accommodated Indians, Africans, and racially mixed people
				c.	Spaniards were at the top, increasingly wanted a large measure of self-government from the Spanish Crown
				d.	emergence of mestizo (mixed-race) population
				e.	gross abuse and exploitation of the Indians
				f.	more racial fluidity than in North America
C.	Colonies of Sugar
		1.	lowland Brazil and the Caribbean developed a different society
				a.	regions had not been home to great civilizations and didn’t have great mineral wealth until the 1690s
				b.	but sugar was in high demand in Europe
				c.	these colonies produced almost solely for export
		2.	Arabs introduced large-scale sugar production to the Mediterranean
				a.	Europeans transferred it to Atlantic islands and Americas
				b.	Portuguese on Brazilian coast dominated the world sugar market 1570–1670
				c.	then British, French, and Dutch in the Caribbean broke the Portuguese monopoly
		3.	sugar transformed Brazil and the Caribbean
				a.	production was labor intensive, worked best on large scale
				b.	can be called the first modern industry
				c.	had always been produced with massive use of slave labor
				d.	Indians of the area were almost totally wiped out or fled
				e.	planters turned to African slaves—at least 80 percent of all African captives enslaved in the Americas ended up in Brazil and the Caribbean
		4.	much more of Brazilian and Caribbean society was of African descent
		5.	large mixed-race population provided much of urban skilled workforce and supervisors in sugar industry
		6.	plantation complex based on African slavery spread to southern parts of North America
				a.	but in North America, European women came earlier
				b.	result was less racial mixing, less tolerance toward mixed blood
				c.	sharply defined racial system evolved
				d.	slavery was less harsh
D.	Settler Colonies in North America
		1.	a different sort of colonial society emerged in British colonies of New England, New York, and Pennsylvania
				a.	British got into the game late; got the unpromising lands
				b.	but British society was changing more rapidly than Catholic Spain
		2.	many British colonists were trying to escape elements of European society
		3.	British settlers were more numerous; by 1750, they outnumbered Spaniards in New World by five to one
				a.	by 1776, 90 percent of population of North American colonies was European
				b.	Indians were killed off by disease and military policy
				c.	small-scale farming didn’t need slaves
		4.	England was mostly Protestant; didn’t proselytize like the Catholics
		5.	British colonies developed traditions of local self-government
				a.	Britain didn’t impose an elaborate bureaucracy like Spain
				b.	British civil war (seventeenth century) distracted government from involvement in the colonies
		6.	North America gradually became dominant, more developed than South America

IV.	The Steppes and Siberia: The Making of a Russian Empire
A.	A small Russian state centered on Moscow began to emerge ca. 1500.
		1.	Moscow began to conquer neighboring cities
		2.	over three centuries grew into a massive empire
		3.	early expansion into the grasslands to south and east was for security against nomads
		4.	expansion into Siberia was a matter of opportunity (especially furs), not threat
B.	Experiencing the Russian Empire
		1.	conquest was made possible by modern weapons and organization
		2.	conquest brought devastating epidemics, especially in remote areas of Siberia—locals had no immunity to smallpox and measles
		3.	pressure to convert to Christianity
		4.	large-scale settlement of Russians in the new lands, where they outnumbered the native population (e.g., in Siberia)
		5.	discouragement of pastoralism
		6.	many natives were Russified
C.	Russians and Empire
		1.	with imperial expansion, Russians became a smaller proportion of the overall population
		2.	rich agricultural lands, furs, and minerals helped make Russia a great power by the eighteenth century
		3.	became an Asian power as well as a European one
		4.	long-term Russian identity problem
				a.	expansion made Russia a very militarized state
				b.	reinforced autocracy
		5.	colonization experience was different from the Americas
				a.	conquest of territories with which Russia had long interacted
				b.	conquest took place at the same time as development of the Russian state
				c.	the Russian Empire remained intact until 1991

V.	Asian Empires
A.	Asian empires were regional, not global.
		1.	creation of Asian empires did not include massive epidemics
		2.	did not fundamentally transform their homelands like interaction with the Americas and Siberia did for European powers
B.	Making China an Empire
		1.	Qing dynasty (1644–1912) launched enormous imperial expansion to the north and west
		2.	nomads of the north and west were very familiar to the Chinese
				a.	80-year-long Chinese conquest (1680–1760)
				b.	motivated by security fears; reaction to Zunghar state
		3.	China evolved into a Central Asian empire
		4.	conquered territory was ruled separately from the rest of China through the Court of Colonial Affairs
				a.	considerable use of local elites to govern
				b.	officials often imitated Chinese ways
				c.	but government did not try to assimilate conquered peoples
				d.	little Chinese settlement in the conquered regions
		5.	Russian and Chinese rule impoverished Central Asia and turned it into a backward region
C.	Muslims and Hindus in the Mughal Empire
		1.	Mughals united much of India between 1526 and 1707
		2.	the Mughal Empire’s most important divide was religious: 20 percent of the population were Muslims, while most of the rest were Hindus
		3.	Emperor Akbar (r. 1556–1605) attempted serious accommodation of the Hindu majority
				a.	brought many Hindus into the political-military elite
				b.	imposed a policy of toleration
				c.	abolished payment of jizya by non-Muslims
				d.	created a state cult that stressed loyalty to the emperor
				e.	Akbar and his successors encouraged a hybrid Indian-Persian-Turkic culture
		4.	Mughal toleration provoked reaction among some Muslims
				a.	Emperor Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707) reversed Mughal policy, tried to impose Islamic supremacy
				b.	Aurangzeb banned sati (widow burning), music and dance at court, various vices
				c.	destruction of some Hindu temples
				d.	reimposition of jizya
		5.	Aurangzeb’s policy provoked Hindu reaction
D.	Muslims, Christians, and the Ottoman Empire
		1.	the Ottoman Empire was the Islamic world’s most important empire in the early modern period
		2.	long conflict (1534–1639) between Sunni Ottomans and Shia Safavids
		3.	the Ottoman Empire was the site of a significant cross-cultural encounter
				a.	in Anatolia, most of the conquered Christians converted to Islam
				b.	in the Balkans, Christian subjects mostly remained Christian
		4.	in the Balkans, many Christians welcomed Ottoman conquest
				a.	Ottoman taxed less and were less oppressive
				b.	Christian churches received considerable autonomy
				c.	Balkan elites were accepted among the Ottoman elite without conversion
		5.	Jewish refugees from Spain had more opportunities in the Ottoman Empire
		6.	devshirme: tribute of boys paid by Christian Balkan communities
				a.	boys were converted to Islam, trained to serve the state
				b.	the devshirme was a means of upward social mobility
		7.	the Ottoman state threatened Christendom
		8.	some Europeans admired Ottoman rule
				a.	philosopher Jean Bodin (sixteenth century) praised Ottoman religious tolerance
				b.	European merchants evaded papal bans on selling firearms to the Turks
				c.	Ottoman women enjoyed relative freedom

VI.	Reflections: Countering Eurocentrism . . . or Reflecting It?
A.	The chapter brought together stories of European, Russian, Chinese, Mughal, and Ottoman colonization to counteract a Eurocentric view of the early modern world.
B.	Western European empires still receive more discussion space because they were different and more significant than the others.
		1.	they were something wholly new in human history
		2.	they had a much greater impact on the people they incorporated
C.	Eurocentrism continues to be a controversial issue among world historians.

Chapter 14: Chapter Outline

The following annotated chapter outline will help you review the major topics covered in this chapter.

Instructions: Review the outline to recall events and their relationships as presented in the chapter. Return to skim any sections that seem unfamiliar.

I. Opening Vignette

A. The Atlantic slave trade was and is enormously significant.
B. The slave trade was only one part of the international trading networks that shaped the world between 1450 and 1750.
		1. Europeans broke into the Indian Ocean spice trade
		2. American silver allowed greater European participation in the commerce of East Asia
		3. fur trapping and trading changed commerce and the natural environment
C. Europeans were increasingly prominent in long-distance trade, but other peoples were also important.
D. Commerce and empire were the two forces that drove globalization between 1450 and 1750.

II. Europeans and Asian Commerce
A. Europeans wanted commercial connections with Asia .
		1. Columbus and Vasco da Gama both sought a route to Asia
		2. motivation above all was the desire for spices (though other Eastern products were also sought)
		3. European civilization had recovered from the Black Death
		4. national monarchies were learning to govern more effectively
		5. some cities were becoming international trade centers
		6. the problems of old trade systems from the Indian Ocean network
			a. Muslims controlled supply
			b. Venice was chief intermediary for trade with Alexandria ; other states resented it
			c. desire to find Prester John and enlist his support in the Crusades
			d. constant trade deficit with Asia
B. A Portuguese Empire of Commerce
		1. Indian Ocean commerce was highly rich and diverse
		2. Portuguese did not have goods of a quality for effective competition
		3. Portuguese took to piracy on the sea lanes
			a. Portuguese ships were more maneuverable, carried cannons
			b. established fortified bases at key locations ( Mombasa , Hormuz, Goa, Malacca, Macao )
		4. Portuguese created a “trading post empire”
			a. goal was to control commerce, not territories or populations
			b. operated by force of arms, not economic competition
			c. at height, controlled about half of the spice trade to Europe
		5. Portuguese gradually assimilated to Indian Ocean trade patterns
			a. carried Asian goods to Asian ports
			b. many Portuguese settled in Asian or African ports
			c. their trading post empire was in steep decline by 1600
C. Spain and the Philippines
		1. Spain was the first to challenge Portugal ’s control of Asian trade
		2. establishment of a Spanish base in the Philippines
			a. first encountered when Ferdinand Magellan circumnavigated the globe (1519–1521)
			b. Philippines were organized in small, competitive chiefdoms
			c. Spaniards established full colonial rule there (takeover occurred 1565–1650)
			d. the Philippines remained a Spanish colonial territory until 1898, when the United States assumed control
		3. major missionary campaign made Filipino society the only major Christian outpost in Asia
		4. Spaniards introduced forced relocation, tribute, taxes, unpaid labor
			a. large estates for Spanish settlers, religious orders, and Filipino elite
			b. women’s ritual and healing roles were attacked
		5. Manila became a major center with a diverse population
		6. periodic revolts by the Chinese population; Spaniards expelled or massacred them several times
D. The East India Companies
		1. Dutch and English both entered Indian Ocean commerce in the early seventeenth century
			a. soon displaced the Portuguese
			b. competed with each other
		2. ca. 1600: both the Dutch and the English organized private trading companies to handle Indian Ocean trade
			a. merchants invested, shared the risks
			b. Dutch and British East India companies were chartered by their respective governments
			c. had power to make war and govern conquered peoples
		3. established their own trading post empires
			a. Dutch empire was focused on Indonesia
			b. English empire was focused on India
			c. French company was also established
		4. Dutch East India Company
			a. controlled both shipping and production of cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, and mace
			b. seized small spice-producing islands and forced people to sell only to the Dutch
			c. destroyed the local economy of the Spice Islands ; made the Dutch rich
		5. British East India Company
			a. was not as well financed or as commercially sophisticated as the Dutch; couldn’t break into the Spice Islands
			b. established three major trade settlements in India during the seventeenth century: Bombay , Calcutta , and Madras
			c. British navy gained control of Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf
			d. could not compete with the Mughal Empire on land
			e. negotiated with local rulers for peaceful establishment of trade bases
			f. Britons traded pepper and other spices, but cotton textiles became more important
		6. Dutch and English also became involved in “carrying trade” within Asia
		7. both gradually evolved into typical colonial domination
E. Asian Commerce
		1. European presence was much less significant in Asia than in Americas or Africa
		2. Europeans were no real military threat to Asia
		3. the case of Japan
			a. Portuguese reached Japan in the mid-sixteenth century
			b. Japan at the time was divided by constant conflict among feudal lords (daimyo) supported by samurai
			c. at first, Europeans were welcome
			d. but Japan unified politically under the Tokugawa shogun in the early seventeenth century
				i. increasingly regarded Europeans as a threat to unity
				ii. expulsion of missionaries, massive persecution of Christians
				iii. Japanese were barred from travel abroad
				iv. Europeans were banned, except the Dutch at a single site
			e. Japan was closed off from Europe from 1650 to 1850
		4. Asian merchants continued to operate, despite European presence
			a. overland trade within Asia remained in Asian hands
			b. tens of thousands of Indian merchants lived throughout Central Asia, Persia , and Russia

III. Silver and Global Commerce
A. The silver trade was even more important than the spice trade in creating a global exchange network.
		1. enormous silver deposits were discovered in Bolivia and Japan in the mid-sixteenth century
		2. in the early modern period, Spanish America produced around 85 percent of the world’s silver
B. China’s economy was huge and had a growing demand for silver.
		1. 1570s: the Chinese government consolidated taxes into a single tax to be paid in silver
			a. value of silver skyrocketed
			b. foreigners with silver could purchase more Chinese products than before
C. Silver was central to world trade.
		1. “silver drain” to Asia: bulk of the world’s silver supply ended up in China (most of the rest reached other parts of Asia )
		2. Spanish silver brought to Europe was used to buy Asian goods
		3. silver bought African slaves and Asian spices
		4. the Spanish “piece of eight” was widely used for international exchange
		5. Potosí , Bolivia , became the largest city in the Americas (population: 160,000) because it was at the world’s largest silver mine
			a. the city’s wealthy European elite lived in luxury
			b. Native American miners lived in horrid conditions
D. Silver vastly enriched the Spanish monarchy.
		1. caused inflation, not real economic growth in Spain
			a. Spanish economy was too rigid
			b. Spanish aristocrats were against economic enterprise
		2. Spain lost its dominance when the value of silver fell ca. 1600
E. The Japanese government profited more from silver production than did Spain .
		1. Tokugawa shoguns used silver revenues to defeat rivals and unify the country
		2. worked with the merchant class to develop a market-based economy
		3. heavy investment in agriculture and industry
		4. averted ecological crisis, limited population growth
F. In China , silver further commercialized the country’s economy.
		1. people needed to sell something to obtain silver to pay their taxes
		2. economy became more regionally specialized
		3. deforestation was a growing problem; wasn’t addressed as it was in Japan
G. Europeans were essentially middlemen in world trade.
		1. funneled American silver to Asia
		2. Asian commodities took market share from European products

IV. The “World Hunt”: Fur in Global Commerce
A. Europe’s supply of fur-bearing animals was sharply diminished by 1500.
B. There was intense competition for the furs of North America .
		1. French were prominent in St. Lawrence valley, Great Lakes, and along the Mississippi
		2. British traders moved into Hudson Bay region
		3. Dutch moved into what is now New York
C. North American fur trade
		1. Europeans usually traded with Indians for furs or skins, rather than hunting or trapping animals themselves
		2. beaver and other furry animals were driven to near extinction
		3. by the 1760s, hunters in the southeastern British colonies took around 500,000 deer every year
		4. trade was profitable for the Indians
			a. received many goods of real value
			b. Huron chiefs enhanced their authority with control of European goods
			c. but Indians fell prey to European diseases
			d. fur trade generated much higher levels of inter-Indian warfare
		5. Native Americans became dependent on European trade goods.
			a. iron tools and cooking pots
			b. gunpowder weapons
			c. European textiles
			d. as a result, many traditional crafts were lost
			e. many animal species were depleted through overhunting
			f. alcohol’s deeply destructive effect on Indian societies
D. Russian fur trade
		1. profits of fur trade were the chief incentive for Russian expansion
		2. had a similar toll on native Siberians as it had on Indians
			a. dependence on Russian goods
			b. depletion of fur-bearing animal populations
		3. Russians didn’t have competition, so they forced Siberians to provide furs instead of negotiating commercial agreements
		4. private Russian hunters and trappers competed directly with Siberians

V. Commerce in People: The Atlantic Slave Trade
A.	Between 1500 and 1866, the Atlantic slave trade took an estimated 12.5 million people from Africa and deposited some 10.7 million of them in the Americas .
		1. around 1.8 million died during the transatlantic crossing
		2. millions more died in the process of capture and transport to the African coast
		3. vast human tragedy
		4. African slave trade transformed the societies of all participants
			a. the African diaspora created racially mixed societies in the Americas
			b. slave trade and slavery enriched many
			c. slavery became a metaphor for many types of social oppression
B. The Slave Trade in Context
		1. most human societies have had slaves
		2. Africans had practiced slavery and sold slaves for centuries
			a. trans-Saharan trade took slaves to the Mediterranean world
			b. East African slave trade
		3. slavery took many forms, depending on the region and time period
			a. slaves were often assimilated into their owners’ households
			b. children of slaves were sometimes free, sometimes slaves
			c. Islamic world preferred female slaves; Atlantic slave trade favored males
			d. not all slaves had lowly positions (in Islamic world, many slaves had military or political status)
			e. most premodern slaves worked in households, farms, or shops
		4. distinctiveness of slavery in the Americas
			a. the scale and importance of the slave trade in the Americas was enormous
			b. largely based on plantation agriculture, with slaves denied any rights at all
			c. slave status was inherited
			d. little hope of manumission
			e. widespread slavery in society that valued human freedom and equality—unlike anywhere else except maybe ancient Greece
			f. slavery was wholly identified with Africa and with “blackness”
		5. origins of Atlantic slavery lay in the Mediterranean and with sugar production
			a. sugar production was the first “modern” industry (major capital investment, technology, disciplined workers, mass market)
			b. the work was very difficult and dangerous—slaves were ideal
			c. at first, Slavs from the Black Sea region provided most slaves for Mediterranean sugar plantations
			d. Portuguese found an alternative slave source in West Africa
		6. Africans became the primary source of slave labor for the Americas
			a. Slavs weren’t available
			b. Indians died of European diseases
			c. Europeans were a bad alternative: Christians from marginal lands couldn’t be enslaved; indentured servants were expensive
			d. Africans were farmers, had some immunity to diseases, were not Christian, and were readily available
			e. much debate over how much racism was involved
C. The Slave Trade in Practice
		1. slave trade was driven by European demand
		2. but Europeans didn’t raid Africa for slaves; they traded freely with African merchants and elites
			a. from capture to sale on the coast, trade was in African hands
			b. Africans received trade goods in return, often bought with American silver
		3. destabilization of African societies
			a. many smaller societies were completely disrupted by slave raids from their neighbors
			b. even larger states were affected (e.g., kingdom of Kongo )
			c. some African slave traders were themselves enslaved by unscrupulous Europeans
		4. increasing pace of Atlantic slave trade
			a. during the sixteenth century, annual slave exports from Africa averaged under 3,000 annually
			b. in the seventeenth century, average of 10,000 slaves per year taken to the Americas
		5. Who was enslaved?
			a. people from West Africa (present-day Mauritania to Angola )
			b. mostly people from marginal groups (prisoners of war, debtors, criminals)
			c. Africans generally did not sell their own peoples
		6. 80 percent of slaves ended up in Brazil and the Caribbean
			a. 5–6 percent in North America
			b. the rest in mainland Spanish America or in Europe
			c. about 15 percent of those enslaved died during the Middle Passage
D. Comparing Consequences: The Impact of the Slave Trade in Africa
		1. created new transregional linkages
		2. slowed Africa’s growth, while Europe and China expanded in population
			a. sub-Saharan Africa had about 18 percent of the world’s population in 1600 but only 6 percent in 1900
			b. slave trade generated economic stagnation and political disruption in Africa
				i. those who profited in the trade did not invest in production
				ii.	did not generate breakthroughs in agriculture or industry—since Europeans didn’t increase demand for Africa ’s products, just for its people
		3. political effects
			a. some kingdoms (Kongo, Oyo) gradually disintegrated
			b. some took advantage of the slave trade
			c. Benin was one of the most developed states of the coastal hinterland
				i. state dates back to about the eleventh century c.e.
				ii. monarch (oba) controlled trade
				iii. largely avoided involvement in the slave trade
				iv. diversified its exports
			d. Aja-speaking peoples to the west of Benin
				i. slave trade disrupted several small, weak states
				ii. inland kingdom of Dahomey rose in the early eighteenth century
				iii. was a highly authoritarian state
				iv. turned to deep involvement in the slave trade, but under royal control
				v. annual slave raids by the army
				vi. government depended on slave trade for revenue

VI. Reflections: Economic Globalization—Then and Now
A. A study of global commerce in the early modern period shows both how different from and how similar we are to people of the past.
B. Globalization isn’t just a twentieth-century phenomenon.
		1. but early modern globalization was much slower and on a smaller scale
		2. early modern globalization was not yet centered on Western civilizations
		3. early modern economic life was mostly preindustrial
		4. early modern globalization was tied to empire building and slavery

Chapter 15: Outline
The following annotated chapter outline will help you review the major topics covered in this chapter.

Instructions: Review the outline to recall events and their relationships as presented in the chapter. Return to skim any sections that seem unfamiliar.

I.	Opening Vignette
A.	In the early modern world, the West spread Christianity to Asians, Africans, and Native Americans. At the same time, the West developed a modern scientific outlook that sharply challenged Western Christianity.
		1.	Christianity achieved a global presence for the first time
		2.	the Scientific Revolution fostered a different approach to the world
		3.	there is continuing tension between religion and science in the Western world
B.	The early modern period was a time of cultural transformation.
		1.	both Christianity and scientific thought connected distant peoples
		2.	Scientific Revolution also caused new cultural encounter, between science and religion
		3.	science became part of the definition of global modernity
C.	Europeans were central players, but they did not act alone.

II.	The Globalization of Christianity
A.	In 1500, Christianity was mostly limited to Europe.
		1.	small communities in Egypt, Ethiopia, southern India, and Central Asia
		2.	serious divisions within Christianity (Roman Catholic vs. Eastern Orthodox)
		3.	on the defensive against Islam
				a.	loss of the Holy Land by 1300
				b.	fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453
				c.	Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1529
B.	Western Christendom Fragmented: The Protestant Reformation
		1.	Protestant Reformation began in 1517
				a.	Martin Luther posted the Ninety-five Theses, asking for debate about ecclesiastical abuses
				b.	Luther was one of many who criticized the Roman Catholic Church
				c.	Luther’s protest was more deeply grounded in theological difference
				d.	put forth a new understanding of salvation as coming through faith alone rather than through good works, with the Bible, not Church teaching, as the source of religious authority
				e.	questioned the special role of the clerical hierarchy (including the pope)
		2.	Luther’s ideas provoked a massive schism in Catholic Christendom
				a.	fed on political, economic, and social tension, not just religious differences
				b.	some monarchs used Luther to justify independence from the papacy
				c.	gave a new religious legitimacy to the middle class
				d.	commoners were attracted to the new religious ideas as a tool for protest against the whole social order
		3.	many women were attracted to Protestantism, but the Reformation didn’t give them a greater role in church or society
				a.	Protestants ended veneration of Mary and other female saints
				b.	Protestants closed convents, which had given some women an alternative to marriage
				c.	only Quakers among the Protestants gave women an official role in their churches
				d.	some increase in the education of women, because of emphasis on Bible reading
		4.	the recently invented printing press helped Reformation thought spread rapidly
		5.	as the Reformation spread, it splintered into an array of competing Protestant churches
		6.	religious difference made Europe’s fractured political system even more volatile
				a.	1562–1598: French Wars of Religion (Catholics vs. Huguenots)
				b.	1618–1648: the Thirty Years’ War
		7.	Protestant Reformation provoked a Catholic Counter-Reformation
				a.	Council of Trent (1545–1563) clarified Catholic doctrines and practices
				b.	corrected the abuses and corruption that the Protestants had protested
				c.	new emphasis on education and supervision of priests
				d.	crackdown on dissidents
				e.	new attention given to individual spirituality and piety
				f.	new religious orders (e.g., the Society of Jesus [Jesuits]) were committed to renewal and expansion
		8.	the Reformation encouraged skepticism toward authority and tradition
				a.	fostered religious individualism
				b.	in the following centuries, the Protestant habit of independent thinking led to skepticism about all revealed religion
C.	Christianity Outward Bound
		1.	Christianity motivated and benefited from European expansion
				a.	Spaniards and Portuguese saw overseas expansion as a continuation of crusading tradition
				b.	explorers combined religious and material interests
		2.	imperialism made the globalization of Christianity possible
				a.	settlers and traders brought their religion with them
				b.	missionaries, mostly Catholic, actively spread Christianity
				c.	missionaries were most successful in Spanish America and the Philippines
D.	Conversion and Adaptation in Spanish America
		1.	process of population collapse, conquest, and resettlement made Native Americans receptive to the conquering religion
		2.	Europeans claimed exclusive religious truth, tried to destroy traditional religions instead of accommodating them
				a.	occasional campaigns of destruction against the old religions
				b.	some overt resistance movements (e.g., Taki Onqoy in central Peru)
		3.	blending of two religious traditions was more common
				a.	local gods (huacas) remained influential
				b.	immigrant Christianity took on patterns of pre-Christian life
				c.	Christian saints took on functions of precolonial gods
				d.	leader of the church staff (fiscal) was a prestigious native who carried on the role of earlier religious specialists
				e.	many rituals survived, often with some Christian influence
E.	An Asian Comparison: China and the Jesuits
		1.	Christianity reached China during the powerful, prosperous Ming and Qing dynasties
				a.	called for a different missionary strategy; needed government permission for operation
				b.	Jesuits especially targeted the official Chinese elite
		2.	no mass conversion in China
				a.	some scholars and officials converted
				b.	Jesuits were appreciated for mathematical, astronomical, technological, and cartographical skills
				c.	missionary efforts gained 200,000–300,000 converts in 250 years
		3.	missionaries didn’t offer much that the Chinese needed
				a.	Christianity was clearly an all-or-nothing religion that would call for rejection of much Chinese culture
				b.	early eighteenth century: papacy and other missionary orders opposed Jesuit accommodation policy

III.	Persistence and Change in Afro-Asian Cultural Traditions
A.	African religious elements accompanied slaves to the Americas
		1.	development of Africanized forms of Christianity in the Americas, with divination, dream interpretation, visions, spirit possession
		2.	Europeans often tried to suppress African elements as sorcery
		3.	persistence of syncretic religions (Vodou, Santeria, Candomble, Macumba)
B.	Expansion and Renewal in the Islamic World
		1.	continued spread of Islam depended not on conquest but on wandering holy men, scholars, and traders
		2.	the syncretism of Islamization was increasingly offensive to orthodox Muslims
				a.	helped provoke movements of religious renewal in the eighteenth century
				b.	series of jihads in West Africa (eighteenth/early nineteenth centuries) attacked corrupt Islamic practices
				c.	growing tension between localized and “pure” Islam
		3.	the most well-known Islamic renewal movement of the period was Wahhabism
				a.	developed in the Arabian Peninsula in mid-eighteenth century
				b.	founder Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792) was a theologian
				c.	aimed to restore absolute monotheism, end veneration of saints
				d.	aimed to restore strict adherence to the sharia (Islamic law)
				e.	movement developed a political element when Abd al-Wahhab allied with Muhammad Ibn Saud; led to creation of a state
				f.	the state was “purified”
				g.	the political power of the Wahhabis was broken in 1818, but the movement remained influential in Islamic world
				h.	reform movements persisted and became associated with resistance to Western cultural intrusion
C.	China: New Directions in an Old Tradition
		1.	Chinese and Indian cultural/religious change wasn’t as dramatic as what occurred in Europe
				a.	Confucian and Hindu cultures didn’t spread widely in early modern period
				b.	but neither remained static
		2.	Ming and Qing dynasty China still operated within a Confucian framework
				a.	addition of Buddhist and Daoist thought led to creation of Neo-Confucianism
				b.	both dynasties embraced the Confucian tradition
		3.	considerable amount of debate and new thinking in China
				a.	Wang Yangming (1472–1529): anyone can achieve a virtuous life by introspection, without Confucian education
				b.	Chinese Buddhists also tried to make religion more accessible to commoners—withdrawal from the world not necessary for enlightenment
				c.	similarity to Martin Luther’s argument that individuals could seek salvation without help from a priestly hierarchy
				d.	kaozheng (“research based on evidence”) was a new direction in Chinese elite culture
		4.	lively popular culture among the less well educated
				a.	production of plays, paintings, and literature
				b.	great age of novels, such as Cao Xueqin’s The Dream of the Red Chamber (mid-eighteenth century)
D.	India: Bridging the Hindu/Muslim Divide
		1.	several movements brought Hindus and Muslims together in new forms of religious expression
		2.	bhakti movement was especially important
				a.	devotional Hinduism
				b.	effort to achieve union with the divine through songs, prayers, dances, poetry, and rituals
				c.	appealed especially to women
				d.	often set aside caste distinctions
				e.	much common ground with Sufism, helped to blur the line between Islam and Hinduism in India
				f.	Mirabai (1498–1547) is one of the best-loved bhakti poets
		3.	growth of Sikhism, a religion that blended Islam and Hinduism
				a.	founder Guru Nanak (1469–1539) had been part of the bhakti movement; came to believe that Islam and Hinduism were one
				b.	Nanak and his successors set aside caste distinctions and proclaimed essential equality of men and women
				c.	gradually developed as a new religion of the Punjab
				d.	evolved into a militant community in response to hostility

IV.	A New Way of Thinking: The Birth of Modern Science
A.	The Scientific Revolution was an intellectual and cultural transformation that occurred between the mid-sixteenth century and the early eighteenth century.
		1.	was based on careful observations, controlled experiments, and formulation of general laws to explain the world
		2.	creators of the movement saw themselves as making a radical departure
		3.	Scientific Revolution was vastly significant
				a.	fundamentally altered ideas about the place of humankind within the cosmos
				b.	challenged the teachings and authority of the Church
				c.	challenged ancient social hierarchies and political systems
				d.	also used to legitimize racial and gender inequality
				e.	by the twentieth century, science had become the chief symbol of modernity around the world
B.	The Question of Origins: Why Europe?
		1.	the Islamic world was the most scientifically advanced realm in period 800–1400
		2.	China’s technological accomplishments and economic growth were unmatched for several centuries after the millennium
		3.	but European conditions were uniquely favorable to rise of science
				a.	evolution of a legal system that guaranteed some independence for a variety of institutions by twelfth/thirteenth centuries
				b.	idea of the “corporation”—collective group treated as a legal unit with certain rights
				c.	universities became zones of intellectual autonomy
		4.	in the Islamic world, science remained mostly outside of the system of higher education
		5.	Chinese authorities did not permit independent institutions of higher learning
				a.	Chinese education focused on preparing for civil service exams
				b.	emphasis was on classical Confucian texts
		6.	Western Europe could draw on the knowledge of other cultures, especially that of the Arab world
		7.	sixteenth–eighteenth centuries: Europeans were at the center of a massive new information exchange
				a.	tidal wave of knowledge shook up old ways of thinking
				b.	explosion of uncertainty and skepticism allowed modern science to emerge
C.	Science as Cultural Revolution
		1.	dominant educated-European view of the world before the Scientific Revolution, derived from Aristotle and Ptolemy:
				a.	the earth is stationary and at the center of the universe, with sun, moon, and stars revolving around it
				b.	a universe of divine purpose
		2.	initial breakthrough was by Nicolaus Copernicus
				a.	On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543)
				b.	promoted the view that the earth and the planets revolved around the sun
		3.	other scientists built on Copernicus’s insight
				a.	some argued that there were other inhabited worlds
				b.	Johannes Kepler demonstrated elliptical orbits of the planets
				c.	Galileo Galilei developed an improved telescope
		4.	Sir Isaac Newton was the apogee of the Scientific Revolution
				a.	formulated laws of motion and mechanics
				b.	central concept: universal gravitation
				c.	natural laws govern both the micro- and the macrocosm
		5.	by Newton’s death, educated Europeans had a fundamentally different view of the physical universe
				a.	not propelled by angels and spirits but functioned according to mathematical principles
				b.	the “machine of the universe” is self-regulating
				c.	knowledge of the universe can be obtained through reason
		6.	the human body also became less mysterious
		7.	Catholic Church strenuously opposed much of this thinking
				a.	burning of Giordano Bruno in 1600 for proclaiming an infinite universe
				b.	Galileo was forced to renounce his belief that the earth moved around an orbit and rotated on its axis
				c.	but no early scientists rejected Christianity
D.	Science and Enlightenment
		1.	ideas of the Scientific Revolution gradually reached a wider European audience
		2.	scientific approach to knowledge was applied to human affairs
				a.	Adam Smith (1723–1790) formulated economic laws
				b.	people believed that scientific development would bring “enlightenment” to humankind
		3.	Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) defined Enlightenment as a “daring to know”
		4.	Enlightenment thinkers believed that knowledge could transform human society
				a.	tended to be satirical, critical, and hostile to established authorities
				b.	attacked arbitrary government, divine right, and aristocratic privilege
				c.	John Locke (1632–1704) articulated ideas of constitutional government
				d.	many writers advocated education for women
		5.	much Enlightenment thought attacked established religion
				a.	in his Treatise on Toleration, Voltaire (1694–1778) attacked the narrow particularism of organized religion
				b.	many Enlightenment thinkers were deists, believing in a remote deity who created the world but doesn’t intervene
				c.	some were pantheists—equated God and nature
				d.	some even regarded religion as a fraud
				e.	example of Confucianism—supposedly secular, moral, rational and tolerant—encouraged Enlightenment thinkers to imagine a future for European civilization without the kind of supernatural religion they found so offensive in the Christian West
		6.	Enlightenment thought was influenced by growing global awareness
		7.	central theme of Enlightenment: the idea of progress
		8.	some thinkers reacted against too much reliance on human reason
				a.	Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) argued for immersion in nature rather than book learning
				b.	the Romantic movement appealed to emotion and imagination
				c.	religious awakenings made an immense emotional appeal
E.	Looking Ahead: Science in the Nineteenth Century
		1.	modern science was cumulative and self-critical
		2.	in the nineteenth century, science was applied to new sorts of inquiry; in some ways, it undermined Enlightenment assumptions
		3.	Charles Darwin (1809–1882) argued that all of life was in flux
		4.	Karl Marx (1818–1883) presented human history as a process of change and struggle
		5.	Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) cast doubt on human rationality
F.	European Science beyond the West
		1.	science became the most widely desired product of European culture
		2.	Chinese had selective interest in Jesuits’ teaching
				a.	most interested in astronomy and mathematics
				b.	European science had substantial impact on the Chinese kaozheng movement
		3.	Japan kept up some European contact via trade with the Dutch
				a.	import of Western books allowed, starting in 1720
				b.	a small group of Japanese scholars was interested in Western texts, anatomical studies in particular
		4.	Ottoman Empire chose not to translate major European scientific works
				a.	Ottoman scholars were only interested in ideas of practical utility (e.g., maps, calendars)
				b.	Islamic educational system was conservative, made it hard for theoretical science to do well

V.	Reflections: Cultural Borrowing and Its Hazards
A.	Ideas shape peoples’ mental or cultural worlds and influence behavior.
B.	The development of early modern ideas took place in an environment of great cultural borrowing.
		1.	borrowing was selective
		2.	borrowing sometimes caused serious conflict
		3.	foreign ideas and practices were often “domesticated”

Akademik Köşem

28 Mart 2016 Pazartesi

Exam Review #1 True/False

History Outline